Lærið krikket
Þar sem ritstjóra hafa borist ábendingar um að lesendur hafi ekkert alltof góðan skilning á þessum leik þá er hér stutt og gott lesefni um reglurnar og sögu krikketsins. (Þeir sem ná að lesa allan pistilinn er boðið í kaffi til mín)
Cricket, History of, historical development of a field game (see Cricket,
Rules of) played around the world, but particularly in the Commonwealth
countries.Early Development of Cricket
The precise origins of the game remain uncertain. The word itself may
derive from old French criquet (a kind of club, or goal post), from Flemish
krick(e), “stick”, or from old English cricc, “crutch, staff”. There is no
reliable evidence of the game until the mid-16th century. A record (dated
1598) of the Borough of Guildford, Surrey, refers to a game of “creckett”
played by pupils of the Royal Grammar School, Guildford in about 1550. In
the 17th century there is an increasing number of references and in 1676
there is the first of a game played outside England. The logbook of HMS
Assistance (part of a British fleet on the Levantine coast) records that
some of her crew played cricket at Antioch on May 6, 1676. Early forms of
competitive cricket took place in Kent, Surrey, and Sussex towards the end
of the 17th century. By about 1700 games were being advertised in the local
press. There is plentiful evidence that aristocrats and gentlemen, as well
as those lower down the social scale, were playing the game about this time
and mostly in south-east England—the traditional, original home of the
game. It may well be that the first wickets were the gates of sheepfolds
and the first bats shepherds’ crooks, which might help to explain the
curved shape of the earliest bats (the oldest existing bat dates from1729).
William Godwin’s poem in Latin, In Certamen Pilae; Anglice (1706),
describes a village cricket match. Early in the 18th century there were
matches between wealthy landowners on which big wagers were made. The
earliest major match for which the full score survives is England versus
Kent in London in 1744, and in that year the first known laws of the game
were issued. A vital influence on the game’s development was the creation
of the Hambledon Club in about 1760 in Hampshire. From this era date some
of the celebrated personalities of the game, including John Nyren who at
the end of his life published The Cricketers of My Time (1833). By the
1760s there were already a few professional players who were hired by rich
and noble patrons, and the Hambledon men established a system of fixed
payments for matches. During the 18th century there evolved two kinds of
professional player: the retained player and the independent player. The
former was a servant of a lord as well as a cricketer; the latter could go
where his skills might earn the best money. Gradually there evolved a
distinction between a player (a professional) and a gentleman (an amateur).
In July 1806 the first Gentlemen vs. Players match was held (on the
original Lord’s ground), and this fixture continued until 1963 when the
amateur status was abolished. A major event in 1787 was the creation of the
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) which was to become the most influential
cricketing body in the world, and by 1800 the organization of the game was
being concentrated at Lord’s. By then the game had spread into the Midlands
and was often played in public schools and at Oxford and Cambridge (the
first University match was held in 1827). Women’s cricket was well
established by 1800 (the first recorded women’s match was in 1745, atGuildford).
Cricket in Britain and Abroad
Overall, the last third of the 18th century was an important period of
development, in Britain and overseas. As with football (and other games)
the export of cricket to other lands was often accomplished by English
soldiers, sailors, colonial servants, merchants, travellers, teachers, and
missionaries. It was introduced in Scotland, Ireland, Australia, Canada,
and India. In America it had been known since 1709. It was also introduced
to the Greek island of Corfu in the 1820s, and to the West Indies about the
same time. And it was pioneered by the English in Sri Lanka, Bermuda, South
Africa, and New Zealand in the first half of the 19th century. The first
international matches were between Canada and the United States in 1844.
During the second half of the 19th century the game became increasingly
popular in Holland and Denmark. In 1859 the first representative team from
England toured overseas—in Canada and the United States. In 1863 a touring
team went to Australia. The first Test match was played at Melbourne in
March 1877 between England and Australia. The first Test in England was
against Australia in September 1880 at the Oval. First Tests by other
nations have been as follows: South Africa (1889), West Indies (1928), New
Zealand (1930), India (1932), Pakistan (1952), Sri Lanka (1982), and
Zimbabwe (1992).
Prior to World War I Test series and overseas tours were confined to those
between England, Australia, and South Africa. Between the wars, when India,
New Zealand, and the West Indies began to take part in Test match
programmes and tours the number of Tests increased considerably. However,
there were still comparatively few tours compared with modern times and all
touring sides made their overseas journeys by ship. After World War II the
advent of easy air travel produced much more frequent tours. With the
addition of three more Test-playing countries Test cricket became an
all-year-round activity, thus imposing big strains on many players. Between
October 1992 and February 1994 no fewer than 54 Tests were played.
The oldest “enemies” are Australia and England and a series between them is
contested for the Ashes. This funereal trophy resides permanently in the
Long Room of the pavilion at Lord’s. The origins are an apt footnote to the
esoteric nature of cricket. In August 1882 (at the Oval ground, London)
Australia beat England in England for the first time. The following
“obituary” notice appeared in the Sporting Times (August 29, 1882):
In affectionate remembranceofEnglish Cricketwhich died at the Oval on
29th August 1882Deeply lamented by a large circle of
sorrowing friends and acquaintancesR.I.P.NB. The body will be cremated and the
ashes taken to Australia
Later that year Ivo Bligh took an English team to Australia where the
Englishmen won two of the three “test matches” and two ladies presented him
with an urn containing ashes, which he brought back.
During the English tour of Australia in 1932-1933 relationships between the
two countries were put under considerable strain by what was called
“bodyline” bowling by the English fast bowlers, Harold Larwood and Voce.
They bowled persistently fast and short at the Australians to a packed
leg-side field. The affair caused much anger and resentment and the tour
was later dubbed the “bodyline tour”.Modern Game
The fortunes of the main Test-playing nations have fluctuated, with
Australia and England both having periods of dominance. During the 1970s
and 1980s India and Pakistan became progressively stronger, and from the
1960s onwards the West Indies produced increasingly formidable teams. With
powerful batting line-ups and an apparently inexhaustible supply of
outstanding fast bowlers they enjoyed a long period of ascendancy during
the 1980s and early 1990s, and were almost unbeatable in the Caribbean. In
the late 1990s Australia was the dominant team. South Africa was excluded
from Test cricket because of its practice of apartheid from 1970 to 1992.
New Zealand has produced several outstanding cricketers, perhaps the most
notable being Sir Richard Hadlee. The other major Test-playing countries
are Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe.
The main competition in England is the County Championship. The first
recorded inter-county match was held in 1709 between Kent and Surrey, and
the first county to be acclaimed as champions was Sussex, in 1827. A county
championship system was established in 1864 (the year in which overarm
bowling was legalized) but it was not until 1890 that the County
Championship was officially recognized and a points system introduced.
There is also a Minor County Championship. This is for those counties which
do not belong to the first-class County Championship. But, the second
elevens of many of the first-class counties play in it. This championship
was inaugurated in 1895 and officially recognized in 1901. Finally, there
are the NatWest Trophy tournament, the Benson & Hedges Cup, and the Sunday
League.In Australia, the annual inter-state first-class competition is contested
for the Sheffield Shield, a trophy bought with money donated by the third
Earl of Sheffield. It was begun in 1891. The original three states, New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, were joined by Queensland in
1926, Western Australia in 1947, and Tasmania in 1977. From 1983 the Shield
winner has been determined by a final between the two top teams.
In New Zealand the counterpart first-class competition is the Plunket
Shield (presented by Lord Plunket, Governor-General of New Zealand) which
was run on a challenge basis from 1906 to 1921, and then annually on a
league basis from 1921 to 1975. From that year the provincial competition
was sponsored by Shell and the trophy is known as the Shell Trophy.
In South Africa the equivalent of the shields is the Castle Cup (until 1995
it was known as the Currie Cup, presented by Sir Donald Currie) and this is
the trophy of the annual first-class competition, which was first contested
in 1889.In the West Indies the Shell Shield was the trophy for the inter-island
competition from 1966 to 1987. Thereafter it was the Red Stripe Cup. From
1893 to 1939 there was a triangular Inter-Colonial tournament, and after
World War II other tournaments prior to the Shell Shield.
In India, the Ranji Trophy is the title of the annual inter-state
competition. It was instituted in 1934 in memory of the great Indian
batsman K. S. Ranjitsinhji. Bombay was the dominant side from 1935 to 1985.
Pakistan’s major national first-class championship is named after Mohammad
Ali Jinnah who was known as Quaid-e-Azam (Great Leader), hence the title
Quaid-e-Azam Trophy.
In Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe—the two most recent Test-playing nations—club,
district, and league competitions are run on similar lines. In Europe,
where the European Nations Championship Cup was inaugurated in 1993, the
main cricket playing countries are Holland, Denmark, France, Germany,
Italy, Switzerland, and Belgium, in all of which there are active league
and club organizations. The same applies to East and Central Africa where
Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia form a Conference. In Kenya the game
also has a big following. In West Africa the principal cricket-playing
countries are Nigeria, Ghana, and The Gambia. In Canada there are 350
senior teams playing in 17 leagues, while in the United States there are
some 700 clubs whose players are mainly immigrants or expatriates. The game
is also played to a good standard in Argentina, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Fiji,
Hong Kong, Israel, Malaysia, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines,
and the United Arab Emirates.
Much cricket round the world consists of limited-overs competitions, with
matches played over a full day or a half day. This form of the game came
into being in 1963 in England with the Gillette Cup knockout tournament,
which from 1981 was called the NatWest Bank Trophy. Such a competition was
the result of waning interest in three-day county cricket and serious
financial problems. It was a great success and was in due course followed
by the John Player League, instituted in 1969 (a limited-over competition
played on Sunday afternoons), and then the Benson & Hedges Cup begun in
1972. The first-ever one-day international match was played at Melbourne in
January 1971 between Australia and England. Thereafter one-day
internationals began to proliferate and became a part of the fixture list
for all touring sides from the main Test-playing nations. The popularity of
these encounters led to the creation of the World Cup. This was first
staged in England in 1975 and contested by six Test-playing nations plus
Sri Lanka and East Africa. These were 60-overs per side matches. The World
Cup is held every four years. There is also the Benson & Hedges World
Series Cup contested annually since 1979-1980 in Australia between the home
country and two other teams, at 50 overs per innings. In Australia, too,
the states currently contest a knockout competition for the Mercantile
Mutual Cup in matches of 50 overs per team. New Zealand have a similar
competition for the Shell Cup, which was begun in 1971. The South African
equivalent is the Nissan Shield inaugurated in 1969. In South Africa they
also have a limited-overs competition under floodlights. This was started
in 1981.
An important development in England from the 1960s was the registration of
overseas players in county sides. From 1968 registration was made easier by
a dispensation which allowed a county to engage one overseas player on
immediate registration. By the 1970s a large number of overseas players
(many from the West Indies, India, and Pakistan) were in English county
cricket. An increasing number of overseas players also went into League
cricket and the experience gained under English conditions was much to
their advantage.
League cricket began in the 1880s in Yorkshire and became established in
the north of England and the Midlands. There is also a South Wales League
(begun in 1926). Many first-class cricketers began their careers in the
leagues and a number have become league professionals on retirement. Most
clubs are allowed one professional and they are well paid. A number of very
famous Test players have been involved. Matches are single innings and take
place in the course of a day or an afternoon.Women’s Cricket
Women developed an interest in cricket in England in the mid-18th century
but the first club was not formed until 1887. This was the White Heather
Club at Nun Appleton, Yorkshire. In 1890 a famous team, titled The Original
English Lady Cricketers toured England and played exhibition matches in
front of huge crowds. In the 1920s the movement for the emancipation of
women was becoming strong and girls’ public schools adopted the game. In
1926 the Women’s Cricket Association (WCA) was founded and adopted MCC
laws. In 1934-1935 the first overseas tour was undertaken: to Australia and
New Zealand and the first Test match was played between England and
Australia at Brisbane in December 1934. In Australia, women’s cricket had
flourished since the turn of the 19th century. The Victoria Women’s Cricket
Association was founded in 1905 and the Australian WCA followed in 1931.
Since World War II there have been regular tours between English,
Australian, and New Zealand teams. In 1958 the International Women’s
Cricket Council (IWCC) was formed to coordinate the increasing amount of
cricket, especially in Australasia, England, South Africa, the West Indies,
Denmark, and Holland. In 1960-1961 came the first English tour of South
Africa and in 1976 history was made with the first-ever women’s Test at
Lord’s—between England and Australia. Three years earlier the first World
Cup competition had been held, with England as the host country (and the
eventual winners). A second World Cup competition was staged in 1977-1978
in India where women cricketers had been establishing themselves. Australia
won, as they did again in 1982 and 1988. In 1993 the Cup was contested by
England, Australia, New Zealand, India, the West Indies, Ireland, Holland,
and Denmark, and England won. A European Cup competition was first held in
1989 and again in 1990 and 1991 and England won each time.
Cricket’s Governing Bodies
There are several important governing bodies for the game. Apart from MCC,
the oldest is the International Cricket Council (ICC) which was founded as
the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909, retitled the International Cricket
Conference in 1965 and given its present title in 1989. In 1993 it ceased
to be administered by MCC. The full members are the nine main Test-playing
countries. There are also associate and affiliate members which are nations
that have been elected, at various stages, since 1965. The organization is
in overall charge of the game internationally.
The Cricket Council was set up in 1968 and acts as the governing body for
cricket in Great Britain. In 1997 the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB)
was formed, replacing the Test and County Cricket Board (TCCB) and the
National Cricket Association (NCA). The ECB is responsible for Test
matches, official tours, and first-class and minor county competitions. It
is also concerned with the interests of cricket below the level of the
first-class game, which was formerly the responsibility of the NCA.
Commercialization and Politics
Since the 1960s cricket, like other games (for example, golf and tennis)
has become increasingly commercialized and increasingly dependent on
revenue from advertising, sponsorship, and the big investments of
television companies. This was inevitable and professional cricket would
not have survived without it. A major event in the commercialization of the
game occurred in 1977. The cricketing world was plunged into some disarray
and alarm by Kerry Packer, the Australian television and business tycoon.
For considerable sums of money he signed up about 50 of the best cricketers
available to play in one-day games and “Super Tests” in Australia. But many
players who did join were banned from playing for their countries. Later,
Packer won a High Court case against the ICC and TCCB.
The game has also been subject to considerable political pressures which
have led to demonstrations, riots, and the banning of cricketers who
contravened the rules of governing bodies by going to play or coach in
South Africa while it was under the apartheid regime. Racist attitudes,
related to political and national tensions, have also been evident. At
international level, and occasionally at other levels, standards of conduct
on the field of play have sometimes deteriorated. There have been many
instances of dissent and unsporting or objectionable behaviour leading to
fines. The use of abusive and insulting language (known as “sledging”)
between players during matches has brought the game into disrepute onoccasions.
Cricket in Literature
Cricket has produced a copious literature, more copious than that of any
other sporting activity. Apart from much excellent journalism and some
fiction, there are numerous historical accounts, countless volumes of
biography, autobiography, memoirs, reminiscences and essays. The “bible” of
the game is Wisden Cricketers’ Almanack, an annual record of events
worldwide each year, plus historical records for earlier years. It
originated in 1864, the work of John Wisden, cricketer for Sussex and the
All-England XI.Contributed By:Charles Cuddon
Cricket, Rules of, an 11-a-side bat-and-ball field game the object of which
is to score more runs than one’s opponents. Variants include indoor
cricket, 6-a-side, and single wicket for which different rules apply. The
laws are more copious and more complex than for any other game. Apart from
the laws there is an inherent complexity in the possibilities of the game
and how it is played, in its remarkable range of techniques and skills, in
its technical, idiomatic, and slang language, in its dependence on the
weather (and atmospheric conditions), and in its constantly fluctuating
balance of power; it is one of the least predictable of games. It appears
to be the only sport which may go on for anything from one to five, six, or
more days. In the longest first-class match on record (the “timeless” and
final Test of England’s South African tour of 1938-1939) play began on
March 3 and the match had to be abandoned on March 14 without a result. See
also Cricket, History of.Cricket Pitches
Apart from Australian rules football and polo (and the equestrian sports
buzkashi and pato) no other game requires such a large playing
area—certainly at county, state, and Test match level. At humbler levels
many fields are quite small. Average dimensions for a first-class cricket
ground would be roughly 200 yd (182 m) long and 150 yd (137 m) wide.
Ideally there should be a minimum of 75 yd (68.56 m) of ground in any
direction from the pitch or wicket (see below). Approximately in the centre
of the ground is the square (often far from square and also known as the
“table” or the “middle”). This has the best surface and on this the pitches
or wickets are made. Most grounds and pitches are turf, but in countries
where grass does not grow easily, or hardly at all, the pitch, at any rate,
is likely to be artificial. Turf is ideal because it is more variable and
produces unpredictable behaviour in the bounce and speed of the ball.
Except when very young cricketers are involved, the pitch (on which most of
the action takes place and which is very carefully prepared by the
groundsman) is invariably 22 yd, or a chain—the old lineal measure of 66 ft
(20.12 m)—long and should be a minimum of 4 yd (3.66 m) wide. At each end
creases are marked in white; they are known as the popping crease, the
bowling crease, and the return crease. At each end, in the middle of the
bowling crease, are placed three stumps—also called the “wicket” (wicket
and stumps are synonymous terms). Cylindrical and made of wood they have
shaped, pointed ends to fix them in the ground. In height they measure 28
in (71.12 cm). The top of each stump is grooved and in these grooved spaces
are placed the bails: small pieces of shaped wood which are 4I in (11.11
cm) long. The total width of the wicket (stumps) when pitched must not
exceed 9 in (22.86 cm).
Most grounds have a sightscreen at each end, painted white or duck-egg
blue, which enable batsmen to see the ball more clearly as it is played
towards them. The vast majority of grounds, even the humblest, have some
sort of pavilion for the use of the players. Pavilions range from simple
rustic buildings to buildings of palatial dimensions (for example, the one
at Lord’s ground, Marylebone, London which can hold hundreds of people). A
ground will also have a scoreboard and a scorer’s box. These vary greatly
according to the status of the ground.Equipment
Traditional clothing for players is white, but latterly coloured clothes
have been introduced for some competitions. Batsmen wear pads to protect
their legs and batting gloves to protect their hands, plus an abdominal
guard or “box”. Other protective gear includes forms of pad for arms,
thighs, shoulders, and chests, plus headguards or helmets with visors.
Wicketkeepers wear pads and especially thick gloves. Cricketers also often
wear peaked caps that bear the device or emblem of their team or club.
The blade of a cricket bat is made of shaped willow. It is bulged at the
back (this is the meat) and the bulge decreases near the bottom of the
blade (the toe). The handle is made of cane reinforced with layers of
rubber and this tapers away into a long narrow “V” shape; this part (the
splice) is fitted into the top of the blade (the shoulders). There is no
restriction as to weight. Nowadays the average weight is 2lb 4oz-2lb 6oz
(1,020-1,077 g). Length and width are restricted. The maximum dimensions
allowed are: total length 38 in (96.52 cm); width 43 in (10.80 cm).
The ball consists of a core (squab) composed of cork and twine, covered
with red leather. The casing is stitched on and the stitches form a seam
round the ball whose circumference is 8 3/16 to 9 in (22.38 to 22.86 cm),
while its weight must be 51 to 5H oz (156 to 163 g).The Officials
The essential officials are two umpires who control the play. One stands at
the bowler’s end, the other is square on to the batting wicket so that the
batsman has his back to him. After each over (see below) they swappositions.
Their main duties are: (1) to judge whether a batsman is out in answer to
an appeal of “how’s that?” from the fielding side; (2) to ensure that the
batting, bowling, and fielding are within the laws; (3) to signal
boundaries, leg-byes, byes, wides, no-balls, and short runs (see below) to
the scorers; (4) to decide if conditions are fit or unfit for play. There
are also two scorers. In the early 1990s a third umpire was introduced for
Test matches. He sits in front of a television screen in the pavilion and
may be called upon to adjudicate in the matter of a run-out or stumping
(see below) when the umpires on the field are uncertain. They communicate
by radio. Latterly, too, a match referee has been introduced for some
competitions.Duration of a Game
Cricket is unique among field games in that a single match may last
anything from four to five hours to five or six days. In much village,
school, and club cricket, matches start at about 2 p.m. and go on till 6.30
or 7 p.m. Many one-day matches (at all levels) begin at 10.30 or 11 a.m.
and go on till 6.30 or 7 p.m. Two-day matches have similar times. Most
first-class matches last three or four days (with similar periods of
playing time). Most Test matches are played over five days (in some cases
six). The standard playing times in most first-class cricket amount to six
hours each day. Intervals are allowed for meals: usually 40 minutes for
lunch and 20 minutes for tea. There may also be brief intervals for drinks,
when the players do not leave the field.
A match consists of one or two innings per team. If one, it is called a
one-innings match; if two, a two-innings match. As a rule a match lasting a
day or less is of one innings. Matches of two days or longer are invariably
of two innings, though weather may prevent this. Teams bat alternately
except when one team follows on (see below). An innings is completed after
ten of a team’s batsmen have been dismissed, or if the captain of the
batting side declares his innings closed. When ten batsmen are dismissed
the last man is left not out.
Substitutes are allowed when a player is injured or ill and provided the
opposing captain agrees. Substitutes may field, but not bowl or bat.
The decision as to who bats first depends on the toss of a coin. The
captain who wins the toss has the option of batting first or asking his
opponents to do so. Winning the toss may often determine the ultimate
destiny of a match.
The game begins with the umpires coming out first, very shortly followed by
the fielding side and then the first two batsmen of the opposing team
(these are called the opening batsmen or openers).Fielding Positions
The captain of the fielding side distributes his players round the field,
positioning them to stop or save runs and to take possible catches. There
are many basic fielding positions and fielders are moved around frequently
to suit individual bowlers and for the purpose of restricting runs and the
scoring strokes of individual batsmen.
When umpires and players are ready to begin, the umpire at the bowler’s end
calls “play” and the bowler runs up to deliver the first ball to the
receiving batsman (the “striker”); the batsman at the other end of the
pitch is the “non-striker”.Batting Strokes
The main object of the batsman is to score runs (a run is the unit of
score). In some circumstances the batsmen may not be interested in scoring
runs, but merely in not getting out and thus just remaining at the wicket
(see below for runs and running between the wickets).
The standard batting strokes are: (1) forward stroke—both an attacking and
defensive shot played off the front foot (left foot in the case of a
right-handed batsman), but primarily defensive or containing; however, runs
may accrue; (2) back stroke—basically a defensive stroke for which the
batsman moves on to the back foot (right foot for a right-handed batsman)
immediately in front of or near his stumps.
Most other strokes are a development or amplification of these two. On the
leg- or on-side there are five basic shots all of which, in varying
degrees, are aggressive and thus intended to score runs. They are: (1) the
glance—the batsman deflects the ball off the face of an angled bat so that
it runs away behind him in the area between fine-leg and square-leg; (2)
the sweep—the batsman advances his front foot, bends his back leg (even
going down on the knee) and with a more or less horizontal bat sweeps the
ball away and behind him in the area between fine-leg and square-leg; (3)
the pull—a forcing shot against a short ball in which the batsman goes back
on his stumps and with a horizontal movement of the bat strikes the ball
anywhere between fine-leg and mid-on; (4) the hook—a forcing shot to a
short ball or “bouncer” which rises perhaps to shoulder or head height; the
batsman moves inside the line of the ball while going back on his stumps
and with bat lofted near the vertical strikes the ball into the area
between mid-wicket and fine-leg; (5) the on-drive—played off the front foot
with a full swing of the bat and hitting the ball in the direction ofmid-on.
On the off-side the basic shots are: (1) the late cut—the batsman brings
his bat down on the ball as it is going past the stumps and steers or hits
it in the direction of the slips and third man; (2) the square cut—the
batsman brings the bat down hard on a rising ball and strikes it in the
direction of gully and cover-point; (3) the forward cut—rarely seen now,
but it is a front foot shot, executed somewhat like a square cut, which
sends the ball somewhere between cover-point and extra-cover; (4) the
off-drive—played like the on-drive with a full swing of the bat sending the
ball in the direction of mid-off; (5) the cover drive—like the off-drive,
but the ball goes between extra-cover and cover or cover-point.
A straight drive sends the ball straight up the field over or past the
stumps at the bowler’s end.Bowling
Bowlers bowl overs. An over consists of six deliveries. Bowlers tend to
bowl in spells (a number of overs). When an over is completed the umpire at
the bowler’s end says “over”, the umpires change over, the field is
rearranged, the batsmen stay where they are, and another bowler bowls from
the other end. And so on, alternating. Two overs cannot be bowled
consecutively from the same end, and a bowler may not bowl consecutiveovers.
When the bowler bowls, the ball may not be thrown or jerked otherwise it is
a no-ball (see below). When a ball is delivered overarm there must be no
bending of the arm at the elbow during the final swing of the arm before
the ball is released. A bowler can use his right or left arm and he can
bowl underarm or overarm, but may not change from one style to the other
without telling the umpire, who will then inform the batsman. Nowadays
nearly all bowling is overarm. The bowler can bowl either over the wicket,
that is with his delivery arm closest to the wicket, or from the other side
of it when he is said to bowl round the wicket.
For a fair delivery the bowler must have some part of his front foot behind
the popping crease and both feet within, and not touching, the return
crease. If a bowler delivers an unfair ball the umpire calls in a loud
voice “no-ball!” A batsman cannot be out from such a delivery (unless he
attempts a run and is run out).
There are four basic categories of bowler: fast, fast-medium, slow-medium,
and slow. Within the broad classifications there are many variations and
technical resources. The two essential prerequisites for good or competent
bowling are line (direction) and length. The ball must be directed (bowled)
accurately on the line of the stumps or very slightly to one or other side
of the stumps. As the wicket is only 9 in (22.86 cm) across the margin of
error is slight. A good length ball pitches in such a way that the batsman
cannot use either of the basic strokes (that is forward or back) with
certainty. To a ball of good length a batsman is usually obliged to play
defensively. However, length may also be dictated by a batsman’s height and
thus by his reach (how far he can stretch with his bat and his feet). But
this does not mean that a very tall batsman has a particular advantage;
some of the greatest batsmen have been short.
Apart from line and length the bowler has various means by which to induce
error by the batsman: (1) pace—the ball may be bowled very quickly, say,
144 kph (90 mph) or fairly slowly, say, 48 kph (30 mph); (2) swing—the
deviation of the ball through the air; this may be caused deliberately by
the bowler’s action and the way he grips the ball and may also be affected
by certain kinds of atmospheric conditions (especially an overcast, cloudy
sky, and a heavy atmosphere). The ball is inclined to swing when it is new
and shiny and when the seam is sharp (bowlers often prolong the shine on a
ball by polishing it). There are two kinds of swing: out-swing and
in-swing. The former occurs when the ball moves away from the outside edge
of the bat to the off-side and is said to leave a batsman. The latter
occurs when the ball moves from the off-side into the batsman; (3)
swerve—this is a form of swing but the term usually describes the way the
ball curves through the air when it is bowled by a slow-medium or slow
bowler; (4) flight—variation of the ball’s arc through the air so that the
batsman will misjudge the length of the ball and therefore where it will
pitch; (5) change of pace—this is achieved by the bowler disguising his
action so that it looks as if he is going to bowl the ball at the same
speed as the previous one but in fact bowls a slower or faster one; such a
variation induces the batsman to play too soon or too late; (6) finger
spin—this is imparted to the ball by a variety of finger grips down and
across the seam; it causes the ball to spin through the air and off the
wicket or pitch; (7) wrist spin—this is imparted by twisting the wrist at
the moment of delivery so that the ball breaks (changes direction) on
impact with the pitch.
The matter of spinning the ball is complex. As most bowlers (and most
batsmen) are right-handed what follows concerns the right-handed—except in
the case of “the Chinaman”.
Off-spin is imparted by gripping the ball with one or two fingers across
the seam and delivering the ball from the open and front part of the hand
in such a way as to cause the ball to break from off to leg (off-break) or
into the batsman off the pitch. It may swerve in flight towards the slip
fielders before pitching. Leg spin is imparted by a contrary movement of
fingers and wrist, thus causing the ball to break from leg to off (the
leg-break). How much the ball breaks (either way) will often depend on the
kind of pitch it is. As a game continues, wear and tear on the pitch may
aid the bowler. If the pitch is cracked, dusty, or crumbling, or if it is
drying out after rain under a hot sun, the seam will “bite” on the turf.
The googly (also known as the Bosie after its alleged inventor Bernard
Bosanquet (1877-1936) and in Australia called the wrong ’un is an off-break
bowled with a leg-break action. Wrist and hand are turned right over so
that the axis of spin is reversed and the ball is delivered from the back
of the hand. It is often a difficult ball to detect. If a batsman spots it
by watching the bowler’s hand he is said to read it; and in general a
batsman is said to read (or not, as the case may be) a bowler, his hand, or
delivery. The left-handed bowler can also, of course, bowl off- and
leg-breaks; but a left-hander’s googly is called a Chinaman. It is named
after Ellis Achong, a bowler of Chinese descent from Trinidad, who devisedit.
There are several other kinds of delivery: (1) the top-spinner—for this
over-spin is imparted to the ball so that it dips slightly in flight and
then hastens off the pitch; (2) the flipper—a ball bowled with a special
finger grip and half out of the side of the hand with a kind of flip or
jerk of the wrist; (3) the yorker—a delivery of very full length which
pitches on or near the popping crease or in the batsman’s block hole; an
especially dangerous ball when bowled fast on a low trajectory; (4) the
bouncer—a ball well short of a length which rears high and may go right
over the batsman’s head; used by fast bowlers to unsettle batsmen and even
intimidate them; (5) full toss—a ball which reaches the batsman without
striking the pitch; a batsman can turn a ball into a full toss by advancing
to meet it; (6) half volley—a ball which the batsman can reach and hit with
ease just after it strikes the pitch; (7) long hop—a loose delivery which
pitches short or very short and rises to a convenient height for the
batsman to hit with ease; (8) the break-back—a delivery which comes back
sharply into the batsman from the off-side; (9) the off-cutter—the ball
cuts off the seam into the batsman; (10) leg-cutter—a delivery cut back off
the seam from leg to off.
Finally there are deliveries with more homely names: (1) beamer—a high,
fast full toss in the direction of a batsman’s head, and an illegal
delivery; (2) donkey-drop—a slow lobbed delivery which describes a high
arc; (3) daisy-cutter—a ball which scuttles along the surface of the pitch
and scarcely rises; (4) squatter—a ball that keeps low on pitching; (5)
floater—a ball that perhaps hangs back and “floats” into or away from the
batsman; (6) banana floater—a slow curving delivery with a fairly high
trajectory.Types of Dismissal
The bowler’s objective is to get the batsman out (though in some
circumstances he may be only interested in restricting the batsman from
scoring runs, or containing him).
There are four basic ways to get a batsman out: (1) by bowling him—a
batsman is bowled when the ball breaks the wicket, that is, when the ball
removes either bail from the top of the stumps (it does not matter whether
the ball has touched the batsman or his bat before this happens); (2) by
having him caught—a batsman is caught when the ball, having touched any
part of the bat, or the batsman’s hand or glove, is held by a fieldsman
before it touches the ground and that fieldsman must be completely within
the playing area when making the catch or immediately afterwards; (3) by
getting him leg before wicket (abbreviated to “lbw”)—this occurs when a
ball which has pitched on the line of the stumps, or outside the line of
the off stump, would, in the umpire’s opinion, have hit the wicket if it
had not been stopped by any part of the batsman’s body or clothing except
his hand holding the bat. So, a batsman could be given out “head before
wicket”—but in the vast majority of cases it is the leg which impedes the
ball. If the batsman deliberately knees or pads the ball away outside the
off stump—even though contact may be outside the line of the stumps—the
batsman is out if the ball would have hit the wicket; (4) by having him
stumped—this happens when the batsman, in the course of making or
completing a stroke, though without attempting a run, has no part of his
bat or body behind the popping crease and the wicketkeeper breaks the
wicket with a hand holding the ball which has just been bowled.
There are other ways a batsman can be out: (1) hit wicket—this occurs when
a batsman, while playing at the ball, breaks his wicket with any part of
his bat, body, or clothing. If the batsman gets out in this fashion the
bowler is credited with the wicket; (2) run out—this happens when a batsman
has left his crease in pursuit of a run; either batsman may be run out if,
in running or at any time while the ball is in play, he is out of his
ground and the wicket is broken. If the batsmen have crossed each other the
one who is running towards the wicket which is broken is judged out; but if
the batsmen have not crossed then the one who has left the wicket which is
broken is out. The important point here is that the batsman must be
attempting a run; (3) handled ball—this occurs when a batsman handles the
ball except at the request of the fielding side (a very rare way of getting
out); (4) a batsman may also be given out if, having stopped the ball, he
deliberately hits it a second time in an attempt to score runs; (5) if he
wilfully obstructs a fieldsman. These last two instances are very rare.
Appeals of “How’s that?” to the umpire are usually made when the fielding
side think that a batsman is out lbw, or caught behind the wicket by the
wicketkeeper, or stumped or run out. When a batsman is out the next man in
the batting order (this is arranged by the captain and may be altered as he
wishes) comes in; he is allowed a maximum of two minutes to reach the
crease. Should he fail to get there in that time he may be “timed out”
(extremely rare).
In most cases a batsman will go on batting until he is out or until he runs
out of partners. In some situations he may retire, in which case he may not
resume his innings. On the other hand, an injured batsman may retire hurt
and afterwards return to continue his innings.Scoring
As mentioned above, the unit of scoring is the run. A batsman scores a run
when he hits the ball and he and his partner both run and make good their
ground behind the popping creases at the opposite ends from where they
started, and before the fielding side return the ball and break the wicket.
If the batsmen turn, run, cross, and make good their ground a second time,
two runs are scored from the stroke, and so on. The commonest number of
runs scored from a single stroke are one, two, and three. Periodically the
batsmen have time to run four, occasionally five and very occasionally six.
When more than four are run it is usually the result of an overthrow. This
occurs when a fielder returns the ball to one set of stumps and the ball
goes far beyond them thus giving the batsmen more time to accumulate runs.
These are called overthrows but are not recorded as such in the scorebook;
they are merely credited to the batsman who hit the ball.
In the case of boundary hits neither batsman needs to run. If he strikes
the ball and it crosses the boundary line he scores four runs. If the ball
goes over the boundary line full pitch (without touching the ground) he
scores a six.
Extras (called sundries in Australia) are added to the total of runs scored
by the batting side, but are not credited to individual batsmen. Extras are
as follows: (1) no-ball (illegal bowl)—one extra is scored for a no-ball,
unless the batsman hits it for runs which are credited to his score; (2) a
bye—when the batsman misses the ball or allows it to go past him and the
wicketkeeper cannot stop it the batsmen run as for a stroke from the bat.
If the ball runs to the boundary four runs are recorded; (3) a leg bye—when
a batsman makes a stroke at the ball and fails to connect and the ball runs
off his body (usually some part of the legs) then the batsmen can run as
for a stroke from the bat; again four leg byes may be scored; (4) a
wide—this occurs when a ball is bowled so high or so wide that in the
umpire’s opinion it is out of the batsman’s reach. This is worth one extra,
but if no fielder manages to stop the ball then the batsmen may run as in
the case of byes. If a bowler bowls a wide or a no-ball then he has another
delivery added to his over.
Umpires have a prescribed code of signals to communicate with the scorers
(and also the players and spectators). For a no-ball one arm is stretched
horizontally; for a bye one arm raised above the head; for a leg-bye one
leg is lifted and bent and tapped with a hand; for a wide both arms are
stretched horizontally; for a four, a repeated lateral movement of one arm
and hand; for a six, both arms raised and bent and the shoulder tapped with
the fingers; when a batsman is given out after an appeal, the umpire raises
one arm and hand in front of his body; for a “dead ball” arms and hands are
crossed in a repeated gesture in front of the body (the dead ball rules are
complex and need to be studied in the laws).Concluding a Match
An innings may go on until ten batsmen have been dismissed (except in
limited-overs cricket, see below). The last batsman left is described as
not out, but he does not go on batting when he has no partner. A match is
won by the team that scores most runs in a completed game. For example, if,
in a single-innings match, Australia score 217 runs and India 157 runs all
out, then Australia win by 60 runs. In a two-innings match Australia may
score 316 runs in its first innings and 228 in its second; while India
score 411 runs in its first innings and 97 in its second. Australia win by
36 runs. If a team batting second scores enough runs in its second innings
to win before all its batsmen have been dismissed then there is no need for
it to go on batting. For example, Australia score 381 in its first innings
and 297 in its second; India score 351 in its first innings. Batting last,
India need 328 runs to win (they are only required to exceed the total by
one run). If they reach 328 for the loss of seven batsmen (wickets) they
are said to win the match by three wickets (because they have three wickets
“in hand”).
These are straightforward results. Other situations may occur. A captain
has the right to declare his innings closed at any time if he thinks his
side has made enough runs. Thus, in a single-innings match we might have
the following: Australia make 242 for 6 wickets declared; India make 226
all out. Australia win by 16 runs. In two-innings matches several possible
situations may occur: (1) Australia make 508 runs for 8 wkts dec. (wkts for
wickets and dec. for declared are standard abbreviations); India make 401
all out; Australia reply with 171 all out; India make 280 for 8 wkts and
thus win by two wickets; (2) Australia 341 all out; India 342 for 9 wkts
dec.; Australia 221 for 6 wkts dec.; India 224 for 7 wkts—thus India win by
3 wkts; (3) Australia 111 for 2 wkts dec.; India 112 for 5 wkts dec.;
Australia 192 for 4 wkts dec.; India 192 for 9 wkts—India win by 1 wkt.
Other permutations are possible.
There is also the follow-on rule. This was introduced in 1835 and over the
years has been subject to some modifications. It operates only in
two-innings matches. In the event of there being a two-innings match in one
day, then the side that bats first and has a lead of 75 or more runs after
the second team has batted once can enforce the follow-on, in which case
the second team bat again at once after the lapse of the statutory
10-minute gap between innings which applies in all cricket (unless the gap
coincides with a tea or lunch interval). Thus: Australia 146 for 8 wkts
dec.; India 70 all out; India is “invited” to follow on; India 104 all out;
Australia then need 29 runs to win. In a two-day match the lead must be 100
runs; in a three- or four-day match 150 runs; and in matches of five days
or more (for example, Test matches), 200 runs. A team is said to “save the
follow-on” when it scores enough runs to prevent it being enforced.
If the final scores in a match are level it is a tie (a rare occurrence),
but only if the fourth and last innings has been completed. An uncompleted
match is a draw. An abandoned match is nearly always the result of
unsuitable weather; commonly, persistent and heavy rain. Occasionally, a
riot or other civil disturbance is responsible.
In limited-overs cricket (usually one-day competitions or half-day games)
an innings ends as soon as the prescribed number of overs has been bowled.
Thus, if the allotment is 60 overs for each innings a scorecard may read:
Australia 251 for 9 wkts; India 237 for 6 wkts. Australia win even though
they have not dismissed all their opponents.
The full laws of the game cover many contingencies not summarized above.
There are detailed stipulations concerning the preparation of the pitch
(and the ground) before a match; and the maintenance of a pitch during a
match (for example, mowing, the use of rollers, sweeping, the repair of
holes, the remarking of the creases, and the use of covers to protect the
pitch and the areas used for the bowlers’ run-ups). The condition of the
pitch at the start of a game and during it may be decisive to the outcome.
The state of the outfield may also influence the course of a game.
As cricket is a game peculiarly susceptible to fluctuations in the
weather—and the state of the light—there are specific procedures for the
umpires to follow. In these, as in many other respects, the spirit in which
the game is played may be of some importance. The colloquialism “it’s not
cricket” has long denoted anything which is unfair or unsporting.Contributed By:
Charles Cuddon
Óli Njáll 15:50| link
Boltadagur
Nú er stefnan sett á sagnfræðingabolta og þar verður mönnum sýndir Heskyskir boltataktar mínir. Þess má geta að Emile Heskey er orðinn 3 besti senter í geymi núna. Í öðru sæti er Michael nokkur Owen og allir menn með viti ættu að geta giskað á það hver er bestur. En annars er ég syrgjandi yfir þeim fréttum að Roberto Baggio sé hættur í knattspyrnu. Hann var kóngurinn.
Óli Njáll 12:23| link
Dreggjar samfélagsins
Já, þær leynast víða.
Óli Njáll 09:21| link
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